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The Production of the Bible: A Historical and Theological Perspective

The Bible is a foundational text for billions of people worldwide, serving as the bedrock of Christian faith and doctrine. However, the history of its production, compilation, and canonization is a fascinating and often misunderstood journey. For over a millennium, the Bible consistently contained 73 books—69 in the Old Testament (including the 7 deuterocanonical books) and 27 in the New Testament. This was the accepted canon of Scripture in the Catholic and Orthodox Christian traditions, which represent the majority of global Christianity. But the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century brought significant changes to the composition of the Bible, especially regarding the Old Testament canon.

The Canon: 73 Books or 66?

From the early centuries of Christianity, Catholic bishops, theologians, and scripture scholars—in cooperation with the Orthodox Church before the Great Schism—discerned the canon of books to include in the Bible. This process was guided by the Holy Spirit, informed by the practices of the early Church, and affirmed through councils such as those in Hippo (393 AD) and Carthage (397 AD). The result was a Bible that included the deuterocanonical books as inspired Scripture. Earlier still, the Council of Rome in 382 AD, under Pope Damasus I, provided one of the earliest official declarations of the canon, aligning with what would later be affirmed by these subsequent councils.

The deuterocanonical books (e.g., Tobit, Judith, Wisdom, Sirach, Baruch, and 1 & 2 Maccabees) held significant spiritual value and were widely used by Christ and the Apostles. The Septuagint, a Greek translation of the Old Testament used extensively in the early Church, included these books. This translation, known as the Alexandrian version, was widely used by Jews in the Mediterranean region, especially where Greek was the spoken language of business and commerce. Aside from the Pentateuch—the original five books of the Old Testament (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy)—other books such as Isaiah, Jeremiah, the Prophets, Psalms, and Proverbs were often included. Additionally, the Alexandrian canon featured books written in Greek, such as the deuterocanonical books. Notably, some of these books, like Sirach and parts of Baruch, originated in Hebrew, adding to their value and recognition.

It is important to note that some of the deuterocanonical books are divided slightly differently or have different names for particular sections when comparing how they appear in Catholic and Orthodox Bibles. These variations reflect historical traditions and practices in how the Scriptures were transmitted and preserved.

Martin Luther and the Deuterocanonical Books

Martin Luther, the leader of the Protestant Reformation, initially showed no overt hostility toward the deuterocanonical books. However, as he observed abuses within the Church, such as his criticism about “the sale of indulgences”, Luther became increasingly critical of doctrines like purgatory and the intercession of saints. These doctrines found support in passages from the deuterocanonical books (e.g., 2 Maccabees 12:46’s reference to prayers for the dead).

It appears that Luther’s removal of these books from the Old Testament canon may have been a reaction to such abuses rather than a rejection of their spiritual or theological value. The phrase “out of sight, out of mind” could describe his thinking: by eliminating these books, he sought to distance Protestant theology from what he viewed as erroneous Catholic doctrines.

Luther’s approach was not limited to the Old Testament. He also recommended removing certain books from the New Testament, such as James, Jude, Hebrews, and Revelation, because they conflicted with his theological views. For example, Luther famously referred to the Epistle of James as an “epistle of straw” due to its emphasis on faith and works (James 2:24), a teaching he believed contradicted his doctrine of justification by faith alone. Although these books were ultimately retained in Protestant Bibles, Luther’s doubts about them highlight the broader question of authority in determining the canon.

A Reactionary Decision?

The Reformers who followed Luther’s lead supported a reduction of the Old Testament canon to the 39 books recognized by the Jewish tradition. They argued that these books, written exclusively in Hebrew, were uniquely authenticated by the Jewish people’s historical stewardship of the Scriptures. But was this reduction justified?

From a theological perspective, the decision to exclude the deuterocanonical books seems reactionary. It removed texts that had been cherished for over a millennium by the universal Church. These books contain profound spiritual insights and historical accounts that enrich our understanding of God’s covenant with humanity.

By Whose Authority?

The Catholic Church argues that it was the early Church—guided by the Holy Spirit—that discerned the appropriate canon of Scripture, not the Jewish scholars at Jamnia or the Protestant Reformers. The Jewish rejection of the Septuagint and Alexandrian canons was, in part, a rejection of Christ and the Apostles, who extensively used these Scriptures. Similarly, the Protestant Reformers’ rejection of the deuterocanonical books can be seen as an attempt to distance themselves from Catholic doctrine and authority rather than addressing the specific abuses they opposed.

This raises a critical question: By whose authority were books removed from the canon? Was it the authority of Christ and His Apostolic Church, which affirmed the 73-book canon? Or was it the authority of individuals who sought to redefine Scripture to align with their theological views?

Evidence from the New Testament

There is compelling evidence that Christ and the Apostles referred to the Septuagint, the Alexandrian version of the Old Testament, in their teachings and writings. This is evident in several New Testament passages where direct quotations or echoes align with the Greek text of the Septuagint rather than the Hebrew Masoretic Text:

1. Matthew 1:23: The prophecy of the virgin birth ("Behold, a virgin shall conceive and bear a son") quotes Isaiah 7:14, which follows the Septuagint’s rendering. The Hebrew Masoretic Text uses "young woman" rather than "virgin."

2. Luke 4:18-19: In Jesus’ reading of Isaiah 61:1-2 at the synagogue, His words follow the Septuagint closely, including references to healing the brokenhearted, which are absent in the Hebrew text.

3. Hebrews 1:6: "Let all God's angels worship him" cites Deuteronomy 32:43 from the Septuagint, a passage with no parallel in the Masoretic Text.

4. Romans 3:10-18: Paul’s argument about human sinfulness strings together passages from Psalms and Isaiah as found in the Septuagint, deviating from the Hebrew versions.

These instances demonstrate that the Alexandrian canon was integral to the theological framework of Christ and the Apostles, offering additional weight to its inclusion in the Christian canon.

Which Bible Do You Want to Read?

The question ultimately comes down to this: Which Bible do you trust to guide your faith and life? The Bible that includes the Scriptures widely used by Christ, the Apostles, and the early Church for over 1500 years? Or the version selected by Jewish scholars who rejected Christ and the Apostolic Church—and later adopted by Reformers seeking to distance themselves from Catholicism?

For Catholics and Orthodox Christians, the answer is clear. The deuterocanonical books are inspired Scripture, filled with spiritual value and historical significance. They provide insights into God’s plan of salvation and reflect the faith and practices of the early Church. Their inclusion in the Bible underscores the Church’s role as the steward of Sacred Scripture and the guardian of God’s revelation.

The Witness of the Early Church Fathers

The Early Church Fathers offer valuable insights into the canon of Scripture. St. Augustine, at the Council of Carthage, affirmed the inclusion of the deuterocanonical books, stating: “The whole canon of Scripture on which we say this judgment is to be exercised is contained in the following books: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, the four books of Kings, two books of Chronicles, two books of Esdras, one book of Tobias, Judith, Esther, two books of Maccabees, and so forth.”

Similarly, St. Athanasius, in his 39th Festal Letter, acknowledged the importance of these books for instruction, even while distinguishing them from the Hebrew canon. His acknowledgment of their use demonstrates their widespread acceptance.

Bishops at the Heart of Canon Formation

Bishops such as St. Jerome, St. Ambrose, and St. Augustine played pivotal roles in canon discussions. Their scholarly work, theological insight, and pastoral leadership helped shape the Church’s understanding of Sacred Scripture. Councils like those at Hippo, Carthage, and Rome were attended by bishops committed to discerning the Holy Spirit’s guidance in defining the canon. Their decisions, upheld by the Church’s Magisterium, affirmed the Bible as inspired and complete.

A Closing Reflection

The production of the Bible is not merely a historical matter but a question of faith, authority, and trust in God’s providence. The Early Church’s commitment to preserving the fullness of God’s Word invites us to embrace the richness of Sacred Scripture as it has been handed down through the ages. Let us unite with the faith of the Apostles and the universal Church, standing firm in the knowledge that the Holy Spirit has safeguarded God’s revelation for all generations. By turning to the canon affirmed by the early councils and the Church Fathers, we root ourselves in the tradition of the Church and deepen our relationship with Christ, the Word made flesh, who dwells among us through these sacred texts.